PowerPedia:Amateur radio

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Amateur radio, often called Ham radio, is a hobby and public service enjoyed by about 3 million people throughout the world. An amateur radio operator, also known as a ham or radio amateur, uses advanced radio equipment to communicate with other radio amateurs for public service, recreation and self-training. Amateurs and researchers have uinvestigated the use of amateur radio to transcieve power and utilize the longwave signals and ultra shortwave, which is akin to Tesla's wireless power system.

History

Throughout its history, amateur radio enthusiasts have made significant contributions to science, engineering, industry, and social services. The economic and social benefit derived from research by amateur radio operators has founded new industries, built economies, empowered nations, and saved lives.

The birth of amateur radio and radio in general has mostly been historically associated with various experimenters. There are many contenders to being the inventor of radio, that honor has been disputed between not only the original experimenters, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1888), Nikola Tesla, and Guglielmo Marconi, but also Amos Dolbear, Reginald Fessenden, James Clerk Maxwell, Sir Oliver Lodge, Mahlon Loomis, Nathan Stubblefield, and Alexander Popov. In the beginning of 1895, Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions of his New York lab at West Point (a distance of 50 miles). Marconi demonstrated the transmission and reception of Morse Code based radio signals over a distance of 2 or more kilometres (and up to 6 kilometres) on Salisbury Plain in England in 1896. Marconi, by 1899, sent wireless messages across the English Channel and, according to his reports, the first transatlantic transmission (1902). In the period following Marconi's experiments (1900-1908) many people throughout the world began experimenting with radio. Communications were made in Morse Code by use of spark gap transmitters or high frequency alternators. These first amateur radio operators are the roots of the modern international phenomenon of amateur radio.

In 1912, the United States Congress passed the Radio Act of 1912 which restricted private stations to wavelengths of 200 meters or shorter (1500 kHz or higher). These "short wave" frequencies were generally considered useless at the time, and the number of radio hobbyists in the U.S. is estimated to have dropped by as much as 88%. By this time, the term "ham" for an amateur radio operator was well established, the origins of which are obscure.

By 1917, World War I had put a stop to amateur radio. In the United States, Congress ordered all amateur radio operators to cease operation and even dismantle their equipment. These restrictions were lifted after World War I ended, and the amateur radio service restarted on October 1, 1919.

In 1921, a challenge was issued by American hams to their counterparts in the United Kingdom to receive radio contacts from across the Atlantic. Soon, many American stations were beginning to be heard in the UK, shortly followed by a UK amateur being heard in the US in December of 1922. November 27, 1923 marked the first transatlantic two-way contacts between amateurs in the American Fred Schnell and French amateur Leon Deloy. Shortly after, the first two way contact between the UK and USA was in December 1923, between London and West Hartford, Connecticut. In the following months 17 American and 13 European amateur stations were communicating. Within the next year, communications between North and South America; South America and New Zealand; North America and New Zealand; and London and New Zealand were being made.

The first International Radiotelegraph Conference was held in Washington, DC, USA in 1927-28.At the conference, the familiar amateur radio bands of 80, 40, 20 and 10 meters were established by treaty and international radio callsign prefixes were devised.

During the German occupation of Poland, the priest Fr. Maximilian Kolbe, SP3RN was arrested by the Germans. The Germans believed his amateur radio activities were somehow involved in espionage and he was transferred to Auschwitz on May 28, 1941. After some prisoners escaped in 1941, The Germans ordered that 10 prisoners be killed in retribution. Fr. Kolbe was martyred when he volunteered to take the place of one of the condemned men. On October 10, 1982 he was canonized by Pope John Paul II as Saint Maximilian Kolbe, Apostle of Consecration to Mary and declared a Martyr of charity. He is considered the Patron saint of Amateur radio operators.

Again during World War II, as it had done during the first World War, the United States Congress suspended all amateur radio operations. With most of the American amateur radio operators in the armed forces at this time, the US government created the War emergency radio service which would remain active through 1945. After the War the amateur radio service began operating again, with many hams converting war surplus radios, such as the ARC-5, to amateur use.

During the 1950s, hams helped pioneer the use of single-sideband modulation for HF voice communication. In 1961 the first orbital satellite carrying amateur radio (OSCAR) was launched. Oscar I would be the first of a series of amateur radio satellites created throughout the world.

The World administrative radio conference met in Geneva, Switzerland in 1979. Among the many topics covered at this meeting was the creation of three new amateur radio bands: 30 meters, 17 meters and 12 meters. Today, these three bands are referred to collectively as the WARC bands by amateur radio operators.

During the Falklands War in 1982, Argentine forces seized control of the phones and radio network on the islands and had cut off communications with London. Scottish amateur radio operator Les Hamilton, GM3ITN was able to relay crucial information from fellow hams Bob McLeod and Tony Pole-Evans on the islands to British military intelligence in London, including the details of troop deployment, bombing raids, radar bases and military activities. Major contributions to communications in the fields of automated message systems and packet radio were made by amateur radio operators throughout the 1980s. These computer controlled systems were used for the first time to distribute communications during and after disasters.

By international agreement in the past, amateur radio operators were required to have a qualification endorsement of Morse Code proficiency to use frequencies below 30 MHz. In 2003 the World radiocommunications conference (WRC) met in Geneva, Switzerland, and Morse code is no longer an internationally required qualification for an amateur radio license. This does not preclude any licensing authority from requiring the proficiency of Morse code to obtain an amateur radio license, however countries are no longer obliged by international treaty to require Morse code proficiency. Current rules in the United States require some Morse code proficiency to allow operation on frequencies below 30 MHz. Proceedings by the FCC are currently underway regarding whether the requirement will be kept. Discussions regarding whether it should engender lively debate among amateur radio operators.

Amateur radio activities and practices

Amateur radio operators enjoy personal wireless communications with friends, family members, and complete strangers, all of whom must also be licensed by the FCC. They support the larger public community with emergency and disaster communications. Increasing a person's knowledge of electronics and radio theory as well as radio contesting are also popular aspects of amateur radio.

Radio amateurs use a variety of modes of transmission to communicate with one another. Voice transmissions are the most common way hams communicate with one another, with some types of emission such as frequency modulation (FM) offering high quality audio for local operation where signals are strong, and others such as single sideband (SSB) offering more reliable communications when signals are marginal and using smaller amounts of bandwidth.

Radiotelegraphy using Morse code remains surprisingly popular, particularly on the shortwave bands and for experimental work on the microwave bands, with its inherent signal-to-noise ratio advantages. Morse, using internationally agreed code groups, can also facilitate communications between amateurs who do not share a common language. Radiotelegraphy is also popular with home constructors as CW-only transmitters are simple to construct when compared to voice transmitters.

The explosion in personal computing power has led to a boom in digital modes such as radioteletype, which a generation ago required cumbersome and expensive specialist equipment. Hams led in the development of packet radio, which has since been augmented by more specialized modes such as PSK31 which is designed to facilitate real-time, low-power communications on the shortwave bands. Other modes, such as the WSJT suite, are aimed at extremely marginal propagation modes including meteor scatter and moonbounce or Earth-Moon-Earth (EME).

Similarly, fast scan amateur television, once considered rather esoteric, has exploded in popularity thanks to cheap camcorders and good quality video cards in home computers. Because of the wide bandwidth and stable signals required, fast scan amateur television is limited in range to at most 100 km (about 60 miles) in normal conditions.

The modes noted above are typically used in direct, radio-to-radio communication. On VHF and higher frequencies, automated relay stations, or repeaters, are used to increase range. Repeaters are usually located on the top of a mountain or tall building. A repeater allows the radio amateur to communicate over hundreds of square miles using only a relatively low power hand-held transceiver. Repeaters can also be linked together, either by use of other amateur radio bands, by wireline, or, increasingly via the Internet.

While many hams just enjoy talking to friends, others pursue interests such as providing communications for a community emergency response team; antenna theory; communication via amateur satellites ; disaster response; severe weather spotting; DX communication over thousands of miles using the ionosphere to refract radio waves; the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) which is a composite network of radio and the Internet; Automatic Position Reporting System (APRS), which is a system of remote positioning that uses GPS; Contesting; the sport of Amateur Radio Direction Finding; High Speed Telegraphy; or low-power operation.

Most hams have a room or area in their home which is dedicated to their radio and ancillary test equipment, known as the "shack" in ham slang.

Many hams enjoy meeting each other in person at events held in various locations. These annual events are generally known as a hamfest with the largest being held in Dayton Ohio.

QSL cards

Traditionally, radio amateurs exchange QSL cards with other stations to provide written confirmation of a conversation (QSO). These are required for many amateur operating awards, and many amateurs also enjoy collecting them simply for the pleasure of doing so.

DXing

Many amateurs enjoy trying to contact stations in as many different parts of the world as they can on shortwave bands, or over as great a range as possible on the higher bands, in a pursuit which is generally known as DXing (DX stands for Distance).

Awards

Operating awards are given to hams who contact (or "work") a certain number of distant stations. The number of operating awards available is literally in the thousands. The most popular awards are the Worked All States award, usually the first award amateurs in the United States aim for, the Worked All Continents award, also an entry level award on the shortwave bands, and the more challenging Worked All Zones and DX Century Club (DXCC) awards. DXCC is the most popular awards programme, with the entry level requiring amateurs to contact 100 of the (as of 2005) 335 recognized countries and territories in the world, which leads on to a series of operating challenges of increasing difficulty. Other popular awards include contacting remote islands, US counties, and lighthouses. Many awards are available for contacting amateurs in a particular country, region or city.

DX-peditions

Certain parts of the world have very few radio amateurs. As a result, when a station with a rare ID comes on the air in these areas, other radio amateurs flock to communicate with it. Often amateurs will travel specifically to a country or island, in what is known as a DX-pedition, to activate it. Big DX-peditions can contact and communicate with as many as 100,000 individuals in a few weeks.

Special event stations

Many amateurs also enjoy contacting the many special event stations on the air. Set up to commemorate special occurrences, they often issue distinctive QSLs or certificates for communicating with them. Some use unusual prefixes, such as the call signs with "96" that amateurs in the US State of Georgia could use during the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, or the OO prefix used by Belgian amateurs in 2005 to commemorate their nation's 175th anniversary. Some events are held annually such as Guides on the Air and Jamboree on the Air. Many amateurs decorate their radio "shacks" with these certificates.

Contesting

Contesting, also known as radiosport, is a competitive activity pursued by amateur radio operators. In a contest, an amateur radio station, which may be operated by an individual or a team, seeks to contact as many other amateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time and exchange information. Rules for each competition define the amateur radio bands that may be used and the kind of information that must be exchanged in each contact. These contacts contribute to a score by which stations are ranked. Each competition is sponsored separately and has its own set of rules. Contest sponsors publish the results in magazines and on web sites. Over time, the number and variety of radio contests has increased, and many amateur radio operators today pursue the sport as their primary amateur radio activity.

Round table discussion groups

Many Amateur radio operators enjoy participating in round table discussion groups or "Rag Chew Sessions" on the air. These discussion groups have been a mainstay of Amateur radio since its inception.

Round table discussion groups are often configured to allow the conversation to pass from one participant to another. The participants spend time developing and presenting their thoughts as the conversation passes from one person to another much as conversation would flow at a dinner table after a good meal. The conversation usually revolves around do-it-yourself experimentation; repairs; and topics related to radio, computers and electronics; however, there is no limit to their scope.

Nets

Related to round tables is another popular activity called the "Net", which is a regularly scheduled (usually weekly) on-air meeting with other amateur radio operators, hosted and moderated by a station referred to as "Net Control". Nets may be used simply as a readiness tool for operators to be familiar with Net control procedures in an emergency, could be an informal round table at a scheduled time, or may be topical, covering specific ham-related interests shared by a group of operators. Most Nets are hosted on local FM repeaters or on HF frequencies. Many Nets feature a playback of audio news recordings such as Amateur Radio Newsline. Since most local club FM repeaters host Nets, it is often the most accessible large-scale activity for new hams, by being able to participate using simply an HT.

Portable operations

Licensed amateurs often take portable equipment with them when traveling, whether in their luggage or fitted into their cruising yachts, caravans or other vehicles. On long-distance expeditions and adventures such equipment allows them to stay in touch with other amateurs by reporting progress, arrival and sometimes exchanging safety messages along the way.

Many hams at fixed locations are pleased to hear directly from such travelers. From in a yacht in mid-ocean or a 4x4 inside the Arctic Circle, a friendly voice and the chance of a kind fellow-enthusiast sending an e-mail home is very well received.

See maritime mobile amateur radio for further details about operation in this way at sea.

Amateur radio licenses in some countries allow for phone patching, or the direct connection of amateur transceivers to telephone lines. Thus, a traveler may be able to call another amateur station and, via a phone patch, speak directly with someone else by telephone. 

Emergency communications (EMCOM)

In times of crisis and natural disasters, ham radio is often used as a means of emergency communication when wireline and other conventional means of communications fail. Recent examples include the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in Manhattan, the 2003 North America blackout and Hurricane Katrina in September, 2005, where amateur radio was used to coordinate disaster relief activities when other systems failed. Amateur radio operators who are involved in emergency communications often belong to a national emergency club, such as ARES and RACES in the United States, AREC in New Zealand, RAYNET in the United Kingdom, WICEN in Australia and Hamnet (http://www.sarl.org.za/public/hamnet/hamnet.asp) in South Africa.

Storm watching

In areas where severe storms are possible, such as the Midwestern and southern states of the U.S., storm watching groups such as SKYWARN coordinate amateur radio operators in the roles of storm spotters and chasers to keep track of severe thunderstorms, particularly due to the threat of destructive and deadly tornadoes. Reports from spotters and chasers are given to the National Weather Service to warn the general public of severe weather conditions in their area.

Low power operations

There is a specialty within amateur radio that concentrates on the construction and operation of low-power transmitters. This activity goes by the name QRP which is an international Q code for "reduce power". QRP operators use 5 watts output or less on Morse Code and 10 watts on voice.

VHF, UHF and microwave operation

The Amateur radio high bands are the VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies above 30 MHz. These bands typically allow radio amateurs to communicate locally. While many radio amateurs use modest equipment on VHF or UHF frequencies primarily for local communications, other amateurs use more sophisticated systems to communicate over as wide a distance as possible.

One technique some amateur radio operators use to communicate over long distances is to use the surface of the moon as a passive reflector. Earth-Moon-Earth operation, or EME, allows communications between any two places on the earth which can see the moon at the same time.

Amateurs also operate on frequencies in the microwave region. The most popular is the 2.4 GHz band using what is commonly called WiFi and in the amateur community referred to as HSMM. In addition to Part 15 amateurs also can operate under Part 97 rules which allow for higher ERP. These networks give amateurs access to speeds measured in the megabits per second. Several long link amateur microwave networks exist. With high gain antennas and commonly available consumer grade Wireless Access Points, links of several miles are common and links to 50 miles are more have been accomplished.

Amateur radio licensing

In most countries, amateur radio operators are required to pass an exam displaying knowledge and understanding of key concepts. This practice is in contrast to other personal radio services such as CB radio, Multi-Use Radio Service, or Family Radio Service / PMR446 that are unlicensed and more heavily restricted. In return, hams are granted operating privileges in larger segments of the radio frequency spectrum using a wide variety of communication techniques that would otherwise be unavailable to them. Hams are also allowed to use equipment that they have either built themselves or modified from existing commercial or amateur gear. This privilege is unavailable in virtually any other radio service.

Getting started

Many people become started in amateur radio by finding a local club. Clubs can provide information about licensing in their respective area, local operating practices and technical advice. (See Category: Amateur radio organizations)

In many countries, amateur licensing is a routine and civil administrative matter. Amateurs are required to pass an examination to demonstrate technical knowledge, operating competence and awareness of legal and regulatory requirements in order to avoid interference with other amateurs and other radio services. In the majority of countries, there are a series of exams available, each progressively more challenging and granting progressively more privileges in terms of frequency availability, power output, and permitted experimentation than previous exams.

In some countries, however, amateur radio licensing is either inordinately bureaucratic (for example in India) or challenging because some amateurs must undergo difficult security approval (as in Iran). A handful of countries, currently only Yemen and North Korea, simply do not permit their citizens to operate amateur radio stations, although in both cases a limited number of foreign visitors have been permitted to obtain amateur licenses in the past decade.

A further difficulty occurs in developing countries, where licensing structures are often copied from European countries and annual license fees can be prohibitive in terms of local incomes. This is a particular problem in Africa and to a lesser extent in poorer parts of Asia and Latin America. Small countries or those with weak administrative structures may not have a national licensing scheme and may require amateurs to take the licensing exams of a foreign country in lieu.

Amateur radio licensing in the United States serves as an example of the way some countries award different levels of amateur radio licenses based on knowledge and telegraphy skill.

When licensed

After licensing in the amateur radio license process, a radio amateur's local government typically issues a callsign to the radio amateur. This callsign is unique to the operator. The holder of a callsign uses it on the air to legally identify the operator or station during any and all radio communication. In certain jurisdictions, once licensed, an operater may also opt for a vanity callsign for a fee.

Privileges of the amateur

In contrast to most commercial and personal radio services, most radio amateurs are not restricted to using type-approved equipment, and therefore some radio amateurs home-construct or modify equipment in any way so long as they meet national and international standards on spurious emissions.

As noted, radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations throughout the RF spectrum, enabling choice of frequency to enable effective communication whether across a city, a region, a country, a continent or the whole world regardless of season or time day or night. The shortwave bands, or HF, can facilitate worldwide communication, the VHF and UHF bands offer excellent regional communication, and the broad microwave bands have enough space, or bandwidth, for television (known as SSTV and FSTV) transmissions and high-speed data networks.

Although permitted power levels are moderate by commercial standards, they are sufficient to enable global communication even with the least effective antenna systems and world-wide communications at least occasionally even with moderate antennas. Power limits vary from country to country. for For example, the highest license classes are: 2 kilowatts in most countries of the former Yugoslavia, 1.5 kilowatts in the United States, 1 kilowatt in Belgium and Switzerland, 750 watts in Germany, 400 watts in the United Kingdom, 300 watts in Italy and 150 watts in Oman. Lower license classes are usually restricted to lower power limits; for example, the lowest license class in the UK has a limit of just 10 watts.

Some people suggest that the amateur portion of the radio spectrum is like a national park: something like the Yosemite of natural phenomenon. Through the licensing requirement, radio amateurs become like trained national park guides and backpackers. Where the backpackers and guides know about the beauty of the parks as well as the rules of engagement with wildlife in the park system, radio amateurs learn to appreciate and respect the beauty of the very limited electromagnetic space and the rules of engagement of human interaction within that space. In contrast, all of humanity benefits from the radio spectrum's existence, although it can not actually be seen.

In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission licenses operators in the Amateur Service as part of a mission that includes radio experimentation, public service, and the maintaining of a trained pool of technically-oriented operators. In exchange for learning the information needed to pass the federal test, licensed operators are allowed to use some 1300 distinct modes of communications at power levels ranging from microwatts to thousands of watts, effective radiated power.

International licensing and operation

When traveling abroad, the visitor must hold a reciprocal license with the country in which she or he wishes to operate. Reciprocal licensing requirements vary from country to country. Some countries have bilateral or multilateral reciprocal operating agreements allowing hams to operate within their borders with a single set of requirements.

Governance and amateur radio societies

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs the allocation of communications frequencies world-wide, with participation by each nation by representation from their communications regulation authority. National communications regulators have some liberty to restrict access to these frequencies or to award additional allocations as long as radio services in other countries do not suffer interference.

In some countries, specific emission types are restricted to certain parts of the radio spectrum, and in most other countries, International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) member societies adopt voluntary plans to concentrate modes of transmission in specific frequency allocations within IARU guidelines to ensure the most effective use of available spectrum.

Many countries have their own national (non-government) amateur radio society that coordinates with the communications regulation authority for the benefit of all Amateurs. The oldest of these societies is the Wireless Institute of Australia, formed in 1910; other notable societies are the Radio Society of Great Britain, the American Radio Relay League, Young Ladies Radio League, Radio Amateurs of Canada and South African Radio League.

Band plans and frequency allocations

Through ITU agreement, frequencies have been set aside for amateur radio (known as the amateur radio frequency allocations). Using allocated frequencies as a basis of planning, national telecommunication agencies decide which of the international allocations can be used within their borders. National amateur radio societies often have band plans to further divide those allocations, often by use.

However, there is at least one case of amateur radio operators being allowed by a national telecommunication agency to use frequencies outside of the internationally allocated amateur radio bands. In Trinidad and Tobago, hams are allowed to use a repeater which is located on 148.80 MHz. This repeater is used and maintained by the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), but may be used by radio amateurs in times of emergency or during normal times to test their capability and conduct emergency drills. This repeater can also be used by non-ham NEMA staff and REACT members. Casual conversation and rag chewing is discouraged, but local hams are encouraged to test their capability on the repeater regularly. NEMA also maintains a repeater within the two meter band on 147.80 MHz. However, REACT members are not allowed to use this repeater.

In space

There are a number of satellites available for amateur use. Hams are also often able to make contact with the ISS. "More people have operated from the ISS than from (insert DXpedition location here)" is a not infrequent remark to express the rarity of certain terrestrial locations. Amateur radio gear operating at more than 200 kilometers are called OSCARs or Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio. To date over 70 such satellites have been launched and more are scheduled to launch in the near future.

One of the newer OSCAR satellites—AO-51 (previously known as AMSAT Echo)—is one of the most accessible amateur radio satellites to date. When configured for high-power mode, it can be operated with as little as a handy-talkie (HT) with a stock "rubber duck" antenna.

Amateur radio in popular culture

Amateur radio can be found throughout popular culture as a plot device. An example from Hollywood is the 2000 film Frequency. In this romantic sci-fi, the two main characters, a father and son (played by Dennis Quaid and Jim Caviezel respectively), communicate via the same amateur radio, one of them living in 1969 and the other in 1999. This communication is, of course, impossible, but was used as a plot device. A wealth of additional information may be found at the main article link shown above. Another example would be the "Radio Ham" episode of 1960s British comedy series "Hancock's Half Hour". There are also famous Amateur radio operators such as King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Walter Cronkite, Gen. Curtis LeMay, Joe Walsh, the late Barry Goldwater, Chet Atkins and King Hussein of Jordan as well as many astronauts and cosmonauts.

Related

• Amateur radio license - Info on obtaining a license
• List of amateur radio organizations
• AMSAT - Amateur Satellite Organization
• APRS - Automatic Position Reporting System
• ARRL - American Radio Relay League
• YLRL - Young Ladies Radio League
• HamRadioIndia - Indian Amateur Radio Organisation
• List of amateur radio operating modes

References and external articles

Source References

• History of Wire and Broadcast Communication http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/evol.html
• Leland Anderson, "Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power", Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, ISBN 0-9632652-0-2 (ed. excerpts available on line (http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/nt_on_ac.htm)
• Rybak, James P., Alexander Popov: Russia's Radio Pioneer http://www.ptti.ru/eng/forum/article2.html
• Bishop, Don, Who Invented Radio? http://home.earthlink.net/~drestinblack/who_invented_radio.htm
• PBS, Marconi and Tesla: Who invented radio? http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_whoradio.html
• Silver, H Ward, Ham Radio For Dummies ISBN 0-76455-987-7
• Ramsey Moreau, Louise, ARRL History Page, http://www.arrl.org/tis/info/history.html#ham
• Columbia University Amateur Radio Club, http://www.w2aee.columbia.edu/arrl-hampromo.html
• Lombry, Thierry, History of Amateur Radio, http://www.astrosurf.com/lombry/qsl-ham-history4.htm
• DeSoto, Clinton B., 200 Meters & Down, The Story of Amateur Radio ISBN 0-87259-001-1
• Coe, Lewis, Wireless Radio: A History Technology, 1996, ISBN 0-786-40259-8
• History of Wire and Broadcast Communication http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/evol.html
• NRAO, Early Radio Astronomy: The Ham Radio Connection, http://www.nrao.edu/whatisra/hist_ham.shtml
• RSGB, The History of Amateur Radio, http://www.rsgb.org/society/history.html
• Atlantic Wireless Association, 75 Years Ago in Ham Radio, http://www.eht.com/oldradio/awa/events/transatlantic/75yearsago.htm
• Laster, Clay, Beginner's Handbook of Amateur Radio, 3rd edition ISBN 0-830-64354-0
• Catholic Forum - Maximillion Kolbe http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintm01.htm
• Famous Hams and ex-Hams |url=http://users.tellurian.com/gjurrens/famous_hams.html
• Catholic Forum - Maximillion Kolbe http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintm01.htm
• Federal Communications Commission History of Wire and Broadcast Communication http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/evol.html
• Bliss, Norman, FCC Rule Book, Tenth Edition ISBN 0-87259-510-2
• WRC-03 Modifications to Article 25 http://www.nocode.org/articles/WRC-03_Article_25_Complete.html
• History of Wire and Broadcast Communication |url=http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/evol.html
• BBC News - The Falklands get wired http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2042375.stm |accessdate=2006-03-02}}
• QRZ Callsign Database GM3ITN |url=http://www.qrz.com/callsign/GM3ITN
• QRZ Callsign Database VP8ITN http://www.qrz.com/callsign/VP8ITN
• The ARRL Letter Vol. 21, No. 19 May 10, 2002. http://www.arrl.org/arrlletter/02/0510/
• A Brief History of Amateur Satellites, http://www.amsat.org/amsat/sats/n7hpr/history.html
• Coe, Lewis., Wireless Radio: A History Technology 1996 ISBN 0-786-40259-8
• http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/publication/ra_info/br68i/br68i.htm Amateur Radio (Intermediate) Licence (A) or (B) Terms, Provisions and Limitations Booklet BR68/I
• http://wireless.fcc.gov/services/index.htm?job=cft&id=amateur&page=cft_get_call_sign Common Filing Task: Obtaining Vanity Call Sign
• Wikipedia contributors (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Recentchanges), Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation. <http://en.wikipedia.org>.

General References

• American Radio Relay League (2006). The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications 2006. 83rd Edition. Newington, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League. ISBN 0-87259-949-3.
• Bergquit, Carl (2001). Ham Radio Operator's Guide. Second Edition. Prompt Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-79061-238-0.
• Cain, James D. (2003). YASME: The Danny Weil and Colvin Radio Expeditions. Newington, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League. ISBN 0-87259-893-4
• Dennison, Mike and Lorek, Chris, eds. (2006). RSGB Radio Communication Handbook. 8th Edition. Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN 0-90508-609-1.
• DeSoto, Clinton B. (1936). 200 Meters and Down: THe Story of Amateur Radio. West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: American Radio Relay League. ISBN 0-87259-001-1
• Gregory, Danny and Sahre, Paul (2003). Hello World: A Life in Ham Radio. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1-56898-281-X
• Messerschmidt, Donald A. (1997). Moran of Kathmandu: Pioneer Priest, Educator and Ham Radio Voice of the Himalaya. Orchard Press. ISBN 9-74829-972-4
• Poole, Ian (2001). HF Amateur Radio. Radio Society of Great Britain. ISBN 1-87230-975-5

See also